The history of the discovery of iron, nickel and cobalt: from antiquity to modern technologies

Metals play a fundamental role in the development of human civilization. From the first copper jewelry to complex precision alloys — their history reflects humanity's journey from the Stone Age to the high-tech world. The PZPS plant works with metals whose discovery was a milestone in science and technology: iron, nickel and cobalt. We will tell you how they were discovered, what they allowed humanity to achieve — and how they are used today.

Metals in human history

The use of metals in different historical eras has contributed to technological progress, the development of industries and the expansion of human capabilities. Conventionally, the history of metal mining can be divided into the following key periods:

1. Stone Age (until 6000 BC) — metals were not yet used; stone was the main material for making tools and weapons.
2. The era of the first metals (about 6000—3000 BC) — people began to use copper and gold, which are naturally found in their native form. These metals were easy to forge and were used to create jewelry, religious items and simple tools.
3. Bronze Age (circa 3000—1200 BC) — The advent of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was a breakthrough: products became stronger and more durable, which contributed to the development of agriculture, crafts and military affairs.
4. Iron Age (from 1200 BC) — the massive use of iron replaced bronze and ushered in a new era in architecture, military affairs and infrastructure.
5. The Middle Ages and the Renaissance — The discovery of new alloys and the improvement of methods for smelting and processing metals gave impetus to the development of shipbuilding, arms production and crafts.
6. Industrial Revolution (18th—19th centuries) — the invention of new smelting methods and processing metals, such as pudding and rolling, made it possible to move to mass production of metal products. This became the basis for the development of mechanical engineering, railway transport and other industries.
7. Modern era — Achievements in chemistry, physics and materials science have made it possible to create dozens of new alloys, including precision and heat-resistant ones used in aviation, astronautics, microelectronics, medicine, nuclear power and other high-tech industries.

Metals became the basis for the transition from manual labor to modern technologies and had a huge impact on the development of human civilization, contributing to progress in science, economy and culture.

Iron: the metal that changed civilization

Ancient references and first finds

The use of iron began before the Iron Age. The earliest items, dating back to the 4th millennium BC, were made of meteoritic iron, which was highly durable and clean. However, metal became widely used only at the beginning of the Iron Age (around 1200 BC), when it was actively used for making tools, weapons and utensils.

Development geography

Ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, iron has been used since early times, but mostly in the form of meteoritic iron. The Egyptians called it “white copper” and used it to create valuable items and jewelry. With the development of iron processing technologies, it began to be used for the manufacture of weapons and tools.

Mesopotamia

In Mesopotamia, iron also became known in the early period. The Assyrians and Babylonians used it to create weapons and armor, which gave them an advantage in military conflicts.

China

Iron became known in China at about the same time as in other regions. Chinese craftsmen have developed their own methods of iron processing, including the use of cast iron. They created agricultural tools, weapons and various household items from their iron.

Influence on the development of civilization

Iron (Fe) has become a key element in technological progress. Iron tools increased labor productivity and contributed to the growth of agriculture and urbanization. Iron weapons and armor gave an advantage in military conflicts, which led to the expansion of territories and the formation of new states. And the use of iron in construction contributed to the development of infrastructure.

Nickel: the “copper devil” that has become a strategic metal

Nickel is a chemical element that is designated Ni in the periodic table of elements. Its history of discovery and use dates back to ancient times. The first mention of nickel can be found in ancient texts, which describe ores containing this metal. However, nickel was isolated in its pure form much later.

Discovery history

Until the 18th century, nickel-containing minerals were confused with copper minerals. Miners called nickel “kupfernickel” — “copper deceiver” or “devil”, because his ores, which look like copper ores, did not produce copper when smelting. This led to disappointment among miners and metallurgists.

It wasn't until 1751 that Swedish chemist Axel Kronstedt isolated a new element from nickel ore and named it after Nickel's mythical mountain spirit, who, according to legend, confused miners, forcing them to find waste rock instead of valuable metals.

Nickel properties and its importance for industry

Nickel is a strong, silver-white metal that is resistant to corrosion due to the formation of an oxide film on its surface, which protects the metal from environmental influences. It forms alloys with iron, chromium, copper and other metals. These alloys have improved mechanical and chemical properties, which makes them irreplaceable in:

• aviation and automotive industries;
• battery production;
• electrical engineering and electroplating;
• chemical industry.

In addition, nickel plays an important role in jewelry. Due to its plasticity and ability to take various forms, it is used to create jewelry and decorative items.

Nickel production: methods and technologies

Nickel production is a complex process that involves several steps. The main methods for producing nickel:

• Hydrometallurgical method It is based on the dissolution of nickel ores in acids or other solvents, followed by the separation of nickel from the solution. This method makes it possible to obtain high-purity nickel and is widely used in industry.
• Pyrometallurgical method includes the smelting of nickel ores in special furnaces at high temperatures. During the melting process, nickel is reduced from its oxides using carbon or other reducing agents. The resulting nickel is then further processed to increase its purity.

Modern technologies make it possible to produce nickel with a high degree of purification and various physical and chemical properties, which makes it an indispensable material for a wide variety of needs — from electronics to the military industry.

Cobalt: the metal of the future from the legends of the past

The origin of the name and the history of the discovery

Cobalt (Co) is one of the most popular and promising metals of the 21st century. The name “cobalt” comes from a German word “kobold” — “goblin” or “mine spirit”. In the Middle Ages, miners believed that ore containing cobalt brought only troubles: it was impossible to smelt valuable metals from it, and evaporation poisoned the air when heated. It wasn't until 1735 that the Swedish chemist Georg Brandt first isolated pure cobalt from Saxon ore and proved that it was an independent chemical element.

First applications: glass and paints

Long before its chemical discovery, cobalt was used to paint glass in a deep blue color. Archaeological findings confirm that ancient Egyptians and Venetians knew about this feature of cobalt-containing minerals. However, the exact composition of the “secret” paint was not disclosed until the 18th century. It is cobalt oxide, the active substance that gives the deep blue color, that underlies the famous “zaffer”.

Industrial importance and key applications

Today, cobalt is an irreplaceable component in a number of industries. Its unique physical and chemical properties have made it popular in many high-tech areas.

Metallurgy and alloying alloys

Cobalt is widely used in the production of:

• Tool materials — tungsten carbide-based alloys, in which cobalt acts as a binder, provide high wear resistance and strength.
• Powder metallurgy — PK-1u cobalt powder is used in hard alloys that increase the life of cutting tools.
• Surface coatings — applying a cobalt layer to the working surfaces of drills, cutters and taps significantly extends the life of products.

The use of cobalt in metallurgy makes it possible to produce materials that combine hardness, resistance to temperature loads and corrosion resistance. These qualities are particularly important for aeronautical and the defense industry.

Energy and batteries

The industrial boom of the 21st century is impossible without cobalt. It has become a central element in the production of lithium-ion batteries, a key technology for:

• smartphones and laptops;
• electric vehicles;
• portable devices;
• energy storage systems.

The reason is the ability of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂) not only to provide high energy density, but also to prevent the battery from overheating. It was thanks to the discoveries of Japanese chemist Koichi Mizushima that the industry began to develop rapidly. The demand for cobalt has increased almost tenfold since the early 2000s.

Cobalt makes batteries not only efficient but also safe. This is especially important for new-generation transport and energy storage systems.

Medicine and biotechnology

IN medicine cobalt is used in the manufacture of:

• Dental and orthopedic prostheses — its alloys are resistant to aggressive environments and have high strength.
• Cardiac surgical stents — the stability of the material in the body ensures long-term use.
• Magnetic fasteners for dentures — the magnetic properties of cobalt compounds make it possible to abandon traditional locks.

Although magnetic mounts are not yet widely used due to their incompatibility with MRI, their convenience has already been confirmed during clinical trials.

Prospects for use in the 21st century

Today, cobalt is actively used in the development of:

• organic solar panels;
• catalysts for water decomposition;
• artificial photosynthesis systems.

In solar cells, cobalt compounds are used as electron carriers. Experiments have shown that such systems are stable, efficient and cheaper than analogues based on platinum or ruthenium. In addition, cobalt compounds were highly active as catalysts for producing hydrogen, an alternative fuel of the future.

Cobalt has already proven to be irreplaceable in various industries. But the future holds even bigger challenges for him:

• Development of renewable energy and energy storage systems.
• Creating compact and powerful magnets for microsystems.
• Integration into nanotechnologies and biodegradable catalysts.
• Use in “artificial leaves” for the sustainable production of hydrogen and organic substances.
• Applications in smart medicine: implantable sensors controlled by a magnetic field.

Cobalt's potential is a bridge between our technological capabilities today and an energy-friendly, mobile and intelligent tomorrow.

Iron, nickel and cobalt in the production of precision alloys

On the basis of iron, nickel and cobalt, PZPS are created alloys with unique properties. These materials are used in the most critical industries: aviation, instrument making, medicine and defense.

Precision soft magnetic alloys

They have low coercive force and high magnetic permeability and are used in transformers, sensors, and magnetic screens.

• 50N, 50NP — iron and nickel-based alloys, composition: approximately 50% Ni, 50% Fe.
• 79NM, 81NMA — nickel alloys that contain 79— 81% Ni.
• 49K2FA-VI, 27KH — iron-cobalt alloys containing 49% and 27% Co, respectively.

Alloys with specified elastic properties

They are used in precision mechanisms, gyroscopes, hours, sensors.

• 40KHNM — consists of about 40% cobalt and 16% nickel.
• 36NHTYU — an iron-based alloy that contains approximately 36% nickel.

Alloys with high electrical resistance

Suitable for resistors, heating elements, current stabilizers.

• X15N60-N — contains 60% nickel.
• X20N80-N — 80% consists of nickel.

Alloys with a predetermined linear expansion temperature coefficient (TKLR)

They are used in electronics, micromechanics, systems with high positioning accuracy.

• 29NK — the alloy contains 29% nickel and 17.5% cobalt.
• 36N, 42N — contain 36% and 42% nickel, respectively.

Heat-resistant alloys

They retain mechanical properties at high temperatures.

• HN78T — nickel alloy for extreme operating conditions.

The history of iron, nickel and cobalt is a history of technological progress. Today they are the basis for precision materials, without which it is impossible to imagine modern production. The factory PZPS continues this tradition, turning the knowledge of millennia into high-precision solutions of the future: more than 50 grades of precision alloys and special steels, innovative formulations and technology, study of properties under various operating conditions — all this forms the face of modern metallurgy.